THE WIRELESS LAN
By stalite engineering
Email: staliteltd@gmail.com
For the home user, wireless has become popular due to ease of installation, and location freedom with the gaining popularity of laptops. Public businesses such as coffee shops or malls have begun to offer wireless access to their customers; some are even provided as a free service. Large wireless network projects are being put up in many major cities: New York City, for instance, has begun a pilot program to cover all five boroughs of the city with wireless Internet access.
History
An embedded
RouterBoard 112 with U.FL-RSMA
pigtail and R52 mini
PCI Wi-Fi card
widely used by wireless
Internet
service providers (WISPs) in the Czech
Republic.
In 1970 the University of Hawaii, under the leadership of Norman
Abramson, developed the world’s first computer communication network using
low-cost ham-like radios, named ALOHAnet. The bi-directional star topology of the system
included seven computers deployed over four islands to communicate with the
central computer on the Oahu
Island without using
phone lines."In 1979, F.R. Gfeller and U. Bapst published a paper in the IEEE Proceedings reporting an experimental wireless local area network using diffused infrared communications. Shortly thereafter, in 1980, P. Ferrert reported on an experimental application of a single code spread spectrum radio for wireless terminal communications in the IEEE National Telecommunications Conference. In 1984, a comparison between Infrared and CDMA spread spectrum communications for wireless office information networks was published by Kaveh Pahlavan in IEEE Computer Networking Symposium which appeared later in the IEEE Communication Society Magazine. In May 1985, the efforts of Marcus led the FCC to announce experimental ISM bands for commercial application of spread spectrum technology. Later on, M. Kavehrad reported on an experimental wireless PBX system using code division multiple access. These efforts prompted significant industrial activities in the development of a new generation of wireless local area networks and it updated several old discussions in the portable and mobile radio industry.
The first generation of wireless data modems was developed in the early 1980s by amateur radio operators, who commonly referred to this as packet radio. They added a voice band data communication modem, with data rates below 9600-bit/s, to an existing short distance radio system, typically in the two meter amateur band. The second generation of wireless modems was developed immediately after the FCC announcement in the experimental bands for non-military use of the spread spectrum technology. These modems provided data rates on the order of hundreds of kbit/s. The third generation of wireless modem then aimed at compatibility with the existing LANs with data rates on the order of Mbit/s. Several companies developed the third generation products with data rates above 1 Mbit/s and a couple of products had already been announced by the time of the first IEEE Workshop on Wireless LANs."
54 MBit/s WLAN PCI Card (802.11g)
"The first
of the IEEE Workshops on Wireless LAN was
held in 1991. At that time early wireless LAN products had just appeared in the
market and the IEEE 802.11 committee had just started its activities
to develop a standard for wireless LANs. The focus of that first workshop was
evaluation of the alternative technologies. By 1996, the technology was
relatively mature, a variety of applications had been identified and addressed
and technologies that enable these applications were well understood. Chip sets
aimed at wireless LAN implementations and applications, a key enabling
technology for rapid market growth, were emerging in the market. Wireless LANs
were being used in hospitals, stock exchanges, and other in building and campus
settings for nomadic access, point-to-point LAN bridges, ad-hoc
networking, and even larger applications through internetworking. The IEEE
802.11 standard and variants and alternatives, such as the wireless LAN
interoperability forum and the European HiperLAN
specification had made rapid progress, and the unlicensed PCS Unlicensed Personal
Communications Services and the proposed SUPERNet, later on renamed as U-NII, bands also
presented new opportunities."Originally WLAN hardware was so expensive that it was only used as an alternative to cabled LAN in places where cabling was difficult or impossible. Early development included industry-specific solutions and proprietary protocols, but at the end of the 1990s these were replaced by standards, primarily the various versions of IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi). An alternative ATM-like 5 GHz standardized technology, HiperLAN/2, has so far not succeeded in the market, and with the release of the faster 54 Mbit/s 802.11a (5 GHz) and 802.11g (2.4 GHz) standards, almost certainly never will.
In November 2007, the Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) won a legal battle in the US federal court of Texas against Buffalo Technology which found the US manufacturer had failed to pay royalties on a US WLAN patent CSIRO had filed in 1996. CSIRO then engaged in legal action against fourteen other computer companies including Microsoft, Intel, Dell, Hewlett-Packard and Netgear who argued that the patent is invalid and should negate any royalties paid to CSIRO for WLAN-based products. In 2009, these cases were settled out of court which may see billions in royalties flow to CSIRO. In a statement to the media, CSIRO Chief Executive Megan Clark said that "CSIRO will continue to defend intellectual property developed from research undertaken on behalf of the Australian taxpayer."
Benefits of WLAN
The popularity of wireless LANs is a testament primarily to their convenience, cost efficiency, and ease of integration with other networks and network components. The majority of computers sold to consumers today come pre-equipped with all necessary wireless LAN technology. Benefits of wireless LANs include:
1. Convenience:
The wireless nature of such networks allows users to access network
resources from nearly any convenient location within their primary networking
environment (home or office). With the increasing saturation of laptop-style
computers, this is particularly relevant.
2.
MOBILTY:
With the emergence of public wireless networks, users can access the
internet even outside their normal work environment. Most chain coffee shops,
for example, offer their customers a wireless connection to the internet at
little or no cost.
3.
Productivity :
Users connected to a wireless network can maintain a nearly constant
affiliation with their desired network as they move from place to place. For a
business, this implies that an employee can potentially be more productive as
his or her work can be accomplished from any convenient location. For example,
a hospital or warehouse may implement Voice
over WLAN applications that enable mobility and cost savings.
4. Deployment:
Initial setup of an infrastructure-based wireless network requires little
more than a single access point. Wired networks, on the other
hand, have the additional cost and complexity of actual physical cables being
run to numerous locations (which can even be impossible for hard-to-reach
locations within a building).
5. Expandability
Wireless networks can serve a suddenly-increased number of clients with the
existing equipment. In a wired network, additional clients would require
additional wiring.
6. COST:
Wireless networking hardware is at worst a modest increase from wired
counterparts. This potentially increased cost is almost always more than
outweighed by the savings in cost and labor associated to running physical
cables.
Disadvantages
Wireless LAN technology, while replete with the conveniences and advantages described above, has its share of downfalls. For a given networking situation, wireless LANs may not be desirable for a number of reasons. Most of these have to do with the inherent limitations of the technology.
Security :
Wireless LAN transceivers are designed to serve computers throughout a
structure with uninterrupted service using radio frequencies. Because of space
and cost, the antennas typically present on wireless networking cards in the
end computers are generally relatively poor. In order to properly receive
signals using such limited antennas throughout even a modest area, the wireless
LAN transceiver utilizes a fairly considerable amount of power. What this means
is that not only can the wireless packets be intercepted by a nearby
adversary's poorly-equipped computer, but more importantly, a user willing to
spend a small amount of money on a good quality antenna can pick up packets at
a remarkable distance; perhaps hundreds of times the radius as the typical
user. In fact, there are even computer users dedicated to locating and
sometimes even cracking into wireless networks, known as wardrivers.
On a wired network, any adversary would first have to overcome the physical
limitation of tapping into the actual wires, but this is not an issue with
wireless packets. To combat this consideration, wireless networks users usually
choose to utilize various encryption technologies available such as Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA). Some of the
older encryption methods, such as WEP are known to have weaknesses that a
dedicated adversary can compromise.
Range :
The typical range of a common 802.11g network with standard equipment is on the order of
tens of metres. While sufficient for a typical home, it will be insufficient in
a larger structure. To obtain additional range, repeaters or
additional access points will have to be purchased. Costs for these items can
add up quickly. Other technologies are in the development phase, however, which
feature increased range, hoping to render this disadvantage irrelevant. (See WiMAX)
Reliability :
Like any radio frequency transmission, wireless networking signals are
subject to a wide variety of interference, as well as complex
propagation effects (such as multipath, or especially in this case Rician
fading) that are beyond the control of the network administrator. Among the
most insidious problems that can affect the stability and reliability of a
wireless LAN are microwave ovens[7]
and analog wireless transmitters such as baby
monitors[8].
In the case of typical networks, modulation
is achieved by complicated forms of phase-shift keying (PSK) or quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM), making interference and propagation effects all the more disturbing. As
a result, important network resources such as servers are rarely connected wirelessly.
Speed :
The speed on most wireless networks (typically 1-108 Mbit/s) is reasonably
slow compared to the slowest common wired networks (100 Mbit/s up to several
Gbit/s). There are also performance issues caused by TCP and its built-in congestion avoidance. For most users,
however, this observation is irrelevant since the speed bottleneck is not in
the wireless routing but rather in the outside network connectivity itself. For
example, the maximum ADSL throughput (usually 8
Mbit/s or less) offered by telecommunications companies to general-purpose
customers is already far slower than the slowest wireless network to which it
is typically connected. That is to say, in most environments, a wireless
network running at its slowest speed is still faster than the internet
connection serving it in the first place. However, in specialized environments,
higher throughput through a wired network might be necessary. Newer standards
such as 802.11n
are addressing this limitation and will support peak throughput in the range of
100-200 Mbit/s.
Radio Emissions:
Wireless LANs utilize radio emissions for communication, which can cause
interference in other devices and may have potentially deleterious effects on
human health. See also electrosmog.
Architecture
Stations
All components that can connect into a wireless medium in a network are referred to as stations.All stations are equipped with wireless network interface cards (WNICs).
Wireless stations fall into one of two categories: access points, and clients.
Access points (APs), normally routers, are base stations for the wireless network. They transmit and receive radio frequencies for wireless enabled devices to communicate with.
Wireless clients can be mobile devices such as laptops, personal digital assistants, IP phones, or fixed devices such as desktops and workstations that are equipped with a wireless network interface.
Basic service set:
The basic service set (BSS) is a set of all stations that can communicate with each other.There are two types of BSS: Independent BSS (also referred to as IBSS), and infrastructure BSS.
Every BSS has an identification (ID) called the BSSID, which is the MAC address of the access point servicing the BSS.
An independent BSS (IBSS) is an ad-hoc network that contains no access points, which means they can not connect to any other basic service set.
An infrastructure can communicate with other stations not in the same basic service set by communicating through access points.
Extended service set
An extended service set (ESS) is a set of connected BSSes. Access points in an ESS are connected by a distribution system. Each ESS has an ID called the SSID which is a 32-byte (maximum) character string.Distribution system
A distribution system (DS) connects access points in an extended service set. The concept of a DS can be used to increase network coverage through roaming between cells.Types of wireless LANs
Peer-to-peer
Peer-to-Peer or
ad-hoc wireless LAN
An ad-hoc network is a network
where stations communicate only peer to peer (P2P). There is no base and no one
gives permission to talk. This is accomplished using the Independent Basic
Service Set (IBSS).A peer-to-peer (P2P) network allows wireless devices to directly communicate with each other. Wireless devices within range of each other can discover and communicate directly without involving central access points. This method is typically used by two computers so that they can connect to each other to form a network.
If a signal strength meter is used in this situation, it may not read the strength accurately and can be misleading, because it registers the strength of the strongest signal, which may be the closest computer.
802.11 specs define the physical layer (PHY) and MAC (Media Access Control) layers. However, unlike most other IEEE specs, 802.11 includes three alternative PHY standards: diffuse infrared operating at 1 Mbit/s in; frequency-hopping spread spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s; and direct-sequence spread spectrum operating at 1 Mbit/s or 2 Mbit/s. A single 802.11 MAC standard is based on CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance). The 802.11 specification includes provisions designed to minimize collisions. Because two mobile units may both be in range of a common access point, but not in range of each other. The 802.11 has two basic modes of operation: Ad hoc mode enables peer-to-peer transmission between mobile units. Infrastructure mode in which mobile units communicate through an access point that serves as a bridge to a wired network infrastructure is the more common wireless LAN application the one being covered. Since wireless communication uses a more open medium for communication in comparison to wired LANs, the 802.11 designers also included shared-key encryption mechanisms: Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA, WPA2), to secure wireless computer networks.
Bridge
A bridge can be used to connect networks, typically of different types. A wireless Ethernet bridge allows the connection of devices on a wired Ethernet network to a wireless network. The bridge acts as the connection point to the Wireless LAN.Wireless distribution system
A Wireless Distribution System is a system that enables the wireless interconnection of access points in an IEEE 802.11 network. It allows a wireless network to be expanded using multiple access points without the need for a wired backbone to link them, as is traditionally required. The notable advantage of WDS over other solutions is that it preserves the MAC addresses of client packets across links between access points.An access point can be either a main, relay or remote base station. A main base station is typically connected to the wired Ethernet. A relay base station relays data between remote base stations, wireless clients or other relay stations to either a main or another relay base station. A remote base station accepts connections from wireless clients and passes them to relay or main stations. Connections between "clients" are made using MAC addresses rather than by specifying IP assignments.
All base stations in a Wireless Distribution System must be configured to use the same radio channel, and share WEP keys or WPA keys if they are used. They can be configured to different service set identifiers. WDS also requires that every base station be configured to forward to others in the system.
WDS may also be referred to as repeater mode because it appears to bridge and accept wireless clients at the same time (unlike traditional bridging). It should be noted, however, that throughput in this method is halved for all clients connected wirelessly.
When it is difficult to connect all of the access points in a network by wires, it is also possible to put up access points as repeaters.
Roaming
Roaming between
Wireless Local Area Networks
There are 2 definitions for
wireless LAN roaming:- Internal Roaming (1): The Mobile Station (MS) moves from one access point (AP) to another AP within a home network because the signal strength is too weak. An authentication server (RADIUS) assumes the re-authentication of MS via 802.1x (e.g. with PEAP). The billing of QoS is in the home network. A Mobile Station roaming from one access point to another often interrupts the flow of data between the Mobile Station and an application connected to the network. The Mobile Station, for instance, periodically monitors the presence of alternative access points (ones that will provide a better connection). At some point, based upon proprietary mechanisms, the Mobile Station decides to re-associate with an access point having a stronger wireless signal. The Mobile Station, however, may lose a connection with an access point before associating with another access point. In order to provide reliable connections with applications, the Mobile Station must generally include software that provides session persistence
External Roaming
(2): The MS(client) moves into a WLAN of another Wireless Internet Service
Provider (WISP) and takes their services (Hotspot). The user can independently
of his home network use another foreign network, if this is open for visitors.
There must be special authentication and billing systems for mobile services in
a foreign network
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